Thursday, August 13, 2009

Organic food

Organic food

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Organic vegetables at a farmers' market in Argentina.

Organic foods are made according to certain production standards. For the vast majority of human history, agriculture can be described as organic; only during the 20th century were a large supply of new synthetic chemicals introduced to the food supply. This more recent style of production is referred to as "conventional," though organic production has been the convention for a much greater period of time. Under organic production, the use of conventional non-organic pesticides, insecticides and herbicides is greatly restricted and saved as a last resort. However, contrary to popular belief, certain non-organic fertilizers are still used. If livestock are involved, they must be reared without the routine use of antibiotics and without the use of growth hormones, and generally fed a healthy diet. In most countries, organic produce may not be genetically modified. It has been suggested that the application of nanotechnology to food and agriculture is a further technology that needs to be excluded from certified organic food[1]. The Soil Association (UK) has been the first organic certifier to implement a nano-exclusion[2].

Organic food production is a heavily regulated industry, distinct from private gardening. Currently, the European Union, the United States, Canada, Japan and many other countries require producers to obtain special certification in order to market food as "organic" within their borders. Most certifications allow some chemicals and pesticides to be used, so consumers should be aware of the standards for qualifying as "organic" in their respective locales.

Historically, organic farms have been relatively small family-run farms[3] — which is why organic food was once only available in small stores or farmers' markets. However, since the early 1990s organic food production has had growth rates of around 20% a year, far ahead of the rest of the food industry, in both developed and developing nations. As of April 2008, organic food accounts for 1-2% of food sales worldwide.

Contents

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[edit] Meaning and origin of the term

In 1939, Lord Northbourne coined the term organic farming in his book Look to the Land (written in 1939, but published in 1940), out of his conception of "the farm as organism", to describe a holistic, ecologically-balanced approach to farming—in contrast to what he called chemical farming, which relied on "imported fertility" and "cannot be self-sufficient nor an organic whole".[4] This is different from the scientific use of the term "organic", to refer to a class of molecules that contain carbon, especially those involved in the chemistry of life.

[edit] Identifying organic food

Mixed organic bean sprouts
  • See also: Organic farming for information on the production of organic food.

Processed organic food usually contains only organic ingredients. If non-organic ingredients are present, at least a certain percentage of the food's total plant and animal ingredients must be organic (95% in the United States[5] and Australia) and any non-organically produced ingredients are subject to various agricultural requirements. Foods claiming to be organic must be free of artificial food additives, and are often processed with fewer artificial methods, materials and conditions, such as chemical ripening, food irradiation, and genetically modified ingredients.

They may also be required to be produced using energy-saving technologies and packaged using recyclable or biodegradable materials when possible.[citation needed]

Early consumers interested in organic food would look for non-chemically treated, fresh or minimally processed food. They mostly had to buy directly from growers: "Know your farmer, know your food" was the motto. Personal definitions of what constituted "organic" were developed through firsthand experience: by talking to farmers, seeing farm conditions, and farming activities. Small farms grew vegetables (and raised livestock) using organic farming practices, with or without certification, and the individual consumer monitored. As demand for organic foods continued to increase, high volume sales through mass outlets such as supermarkets rapidly replaced the direct farmer connection. However, for supermarket consumers, food production is not easily observable, and product labeling, like "certified organic", is relied on. Government regulations and third-party inspectors are looked to for assurance. A "certified organic" label is usually the only way for consumers to know that a processed product is "organic".

[edit] Legal definition

The National Organic Program (run by the USDA) is in charge of the legal definition of organic in the United States and does organic certification.
Main article: Organic certification
See also: List of countries with organic agriculture regulation

To be certified organic, products must be grown and manufactured in a manner that adheres to standards set by the country they are sold in:

[edit] Environmental impact

Several surveys and studies have attempted to examine and compare conventional and organic systems of farming. The general consensus across these surveys[6][7] is that organic farming is less damaging for the following reasons:

  • Organic farms do not consume or release synthetic pesticides into the environment — some of which have the potential to harm soil, water and local terrestrial and aquatic wildlife.
  • Organic farms are better than conventional farms at sustaining diverse ecosystems, i.e., populations of plants and insects, as well as animals.
  • When calculated either per unit area or per unit of yield, organic farms use less energy and produce less waste, e.g., waste such as packaging materials for chemicals.

However, some critics of organic farming methods believe that organic farms require more land to produce the same amount of food as conventional farms (see 'Yield' section, below). They argue that if this is true, organic farms could potentially destroy the rainforests and wipe out many ecosystems.[8][9]

A 2003 investigation by the Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs in the UK found, similar to other reports, that organic farming "can produce positive environmental benefits", but that some of the benefits were decreased or lost when comparisons are made on "the basis of unit production rather than area".[10]

[edit] Yield

One study found a 20% smaller yield from organic farms using 50% less fertilizer and 97% less pesticide.[11] Studies comparing yields have had mixed results.[12] Supporters claim that organically managed soil has a higher quality[13] and higher water retention. This may help increase yields for organic farms in drought years.

One study from the Danish Environmental Protection Agency found that, area-for-area, organic farms of potatoes, sugar beet and seed grass produce as little as half the output of conventional farming.[14] Findings like these, and the dependence of organic food on manure from low-yield cattle, has prompted criticism from scientists that organic farming is environmentally unsound and incapable of feeding the world population.[8] Among these critics are Norman Borlaug, father of the "green revolution," and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize, who asserts that organic farming practices can at most feed 4 billion people, after expanding cropland dramatically and destroying ecosystems in the process.[9] Michael Pollan responds to this by pointing out that average yield of world agriculture is substantially lower than modern sustainable farming yields. Bringing average world yields up to modern organic levels could increase the worlds food supply by 50 % [15]

A 2007 study [16] compiling research from 293 different comparisons into a single study to assess the overall efficiency of the two agricultural systems has concluded that

organic methods could produce enough food on a global per capita basis to sustain the current human population, and potentially an even larger population, without increasing the agricultural land base (from the abstract)

The researchers also found that while in developed countries, organic systems on average produce 92% of the yield produced by conventional agriculture, organic systems produce 80% more than conventional farms in developing countries, because the materials needed for organic farming are more accessible than synthetic farming materials to farmers in some poor countries. On the other hand, communities that lack sufficient manure to replenish soils would struggle with organic farming, and the soil would degrade rapidly[17] .

[edit] Energy Efficiency

Some studies are also consistent in showing that organic farms are more energy efficient.[18]

[edit] Pesticides and farmers

There are studies detailing the effects and side effects of pesticides upon the health of farm workers.[19] Even when pesticides are used correctly, they still end up in the air and bodies of farm workers. Through these studies, organophosphate pesticides have become associated with acute health problems such as abdominal pain, dizziness, headaches, nausea, vomiting, as well as skin and eye problems.[20] In addition, there have been many other studies that have found pesticide exposure is associated with more severe health problems such as respiratory problems, memory disorders, dermatologic conditions,[21][22] cancer,[23] depression, neurologic deficits,[24][25] miscarriages, and birth defects.[26] Summaries of peer-reviewed research have examined the link between pesticide exposure and neurological outcomes and cancer in organophosphate-exposed workers.[27][28]

Imported fruits and vegetables from South America are more likely to contain high level of pesticides,[29] even pesticides banned for use in the United States.[30] Migratory birds, such as Swainson's hawks, have wintering grounds in Argentina where thousands of them were found dead from monocrotophos insecticide poisoning.[citation needed]

[edit] Pesticide residue

A study published in 2002 showed that "Organically grown foods consistently had about one-third as many residues as conventionally grown foods."[31][32]

Monitoring of pesticide residues in the United States is carried out by the Pesticide Data Program (part of USDA, which was created in 1990. It has since tested over 60 different types of food for over 400 different types of pesticides - with samples collected close to the point of consumption. Their most recent results found in 2005 that:

“ These data indicate that 29.5 percent of all samples tested contained no detectable pesticides [parent compound and metabolite(s) combined], 30 percent contained 1 pesticide, and slightly over 40 percent contained more than 1 pesticide. ”

—USDA, Pesticide Data Program[33]

Several studies corroborate this finding by having found that 25 percent of organic food carries synthetic pesticide residues, in comparison to 77 percent of conventional food.[34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43]

A study published by the National Research Council in 1993 determined that for infants and children, the major source of exposure to pesticides is through diet.[44] A recent study in 2006 measured the levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure in 23 schoolchildren before and after replacing their diet with organic food. In this study it was found that levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure dropped dramatically and immediately when the children switched to an organic diet.[45] Food residue limits established by law are set specifically with children in mind and consider a child's lifetime ingestion of each pesticide.[46]

There are controversial data on the health implications of certain pesticides. For example, the herbicide Atrazine has been shown in some experiments to be a teratogen, causing demasculinization in male frogs exposed to small concentrations. Under the effects of Atrazine, male frogs were found to have greatly increased occurrences of either malformed gonads, or testicular gonads which contain non-degenerate eggs.[47] Effects were however significantly reduced in high concentrations, as is consistent with other teratogens affecting the endocrine system, such as estradiol.

Organic farming standards do not allow the use of synthetic pesticides, but they do allow the use of specific pesticides derived from plants. The most common organic pesticides, accepted for restricted use by most organic standards, include Bt, pyrethrum, and rotenone. Some organic pesticides, such as rotenone, have high toxicity to fish and aquatic creatures with some toxicity to mammals. It causes Parkinson's disease if injected into rats.[48]

The United States Environmental Protection Agency and state agencies periodically review the licensing of suspect pesticides, but the process of de-listing is slow. One example of this slow process is exemplified by the pesticide Dichlorvos, or DDVP, which as recently as the year 2006 the EPA proposed its continued sale. The EPA has almost banned this pesticide on several occasions since the 1970s, but it never did so despite considerable evidence that suggests DDVP is not only carcinogenic but dangerous to the human nervous system — especially in children.[49] The EPA "has determined that risks do not exceed levels of concern"[50], a study of longterm exposure to DDVP in rats showed no toxic effects.[51]

[edit] Nutritional value and taste

According to the UK's Food Standards Agency, "Consumers may choose to buy organic fruit, vegetables and meat because they believe them to be more nutritious than other food. However, the balance of current scientific evidence does not support this view."[52] A 12-month systematic review commissioned by the FSA in 2009 and conducted at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine based on 50 year's worth of collected evidence concluded that "there is no good evidence that consumption of organic food is beneficial to health in relation to nutrient content."[53] Other studies have found no proof that organic food offers greater nutritional values, more consumer safety or any distinguishable difference in taste.[54][55][56][57] Regarding taste, a 2001 study concluded that organic apples were sweeter by blind taste test. Firmness of the apples was also rated higher than those grown conventionally.[58] Some studies have shown higher nutrient levels in organic fruit and vegetables compared with conventionally grown products.[59] A 2007 study found that organic fruit and vegetables contain up to 40% more antioxidants than conventional equivalents, and organic milk 60% more. The 4-year study was funded by the European Union.[60]

Limited use of food preservatives may cause faster spoilage of organic foods. Such foods in the stores, on the other hand, are guaranteed of not having been stored for extended amounts of time, still being high in decaying nutrients that food preservatives fail to preserve. Organic food may also potentially have higher amounts of natural biotoxins, like solanine in potatoes[61], as to compensate for the lack of externally applied fungicides and herbicides etc. However, in current studies, there have been no indications of difference in amounts of natural biotoxins between organic and conventional foods.[61]

[edit] Cost

Organic products typically cost 10 to 40% more than similar conventionally produced products.[62] Processed organic foods vary in price when compared to their conventional counterparts. An Australian study by Choice magazine in 2004 found processed organic foods in supermarkets to be 65% more expensive, but noted this was not consistent. Prices may be higher because organic produce is produced on a smaller scale, and may need to be milled or processed separately. Furthermore, there is an increase in shipping costs from more centralized production in otherwise regional markets. In the case of dairy and eggs, the animal's requirements such as the number of animals that can be raised per acre, or the breed of animal and its feed conversion ratio affects the cost.

[edit] Related movements

Community-supported agriculture (CSA) is an approach where members prepurchase "shares" in a season's harvest, and pick up their weekly portions from distribution sites. Thus, consumers provide direct financing for farms, participate in the risks and rewards of annual growing conditions, and distribute food directly from the farm.

Local food is buying food that was produced geographically closer to the consumer. Local food is seen as a way to get fresher food and invest in one's own community.

The fair trade movement, based on the principle that social and environmental sustainability are inextricably interdependent, is often linked to organic food.

Biodynamic agriculture, a method of organic farming, is closely related to the organic food movement.

[edit] Beyond Organic

Beyond Organic is a concept aligned with the idea of creating sustainable and ecological systems of food production capable of transcending the standards currently affixed to foods and processes now categorized by the term "organic". Since the organic food movement has been increasingly industrialized and often forced to undergo processes similar to those of conventional agriculture (such as monocultural plantings on massive scales) due to market pressures, many members of the what was originally the organic food movement are demanding that new standards be established for sustainable organic foods. Many ardent supporters of organic foods are frustrated that the integrity of what constitutes "organic" foods and farming methods have been compromised by FDA legislation that allows for synthetics to be introduced into organic processed foods and other unsustainable industrial attributes associated with "organic" foods.[63]

[edit] Facts and statistics

While organic food accounts for 1–2% of total food sales worldwide, the organic food market is growing rapidly, far ahead of the rest of the food industry, in both developed and developing nations.

  • World organic food sales jumped from US $23 billion in 2002[64] to $40 billion in 2006.[65]
  • The world organic market has been growing by 20% a year since the early 1990s, with future growth estimates ranging from 10%-50% annually depending on the country.

[edit] North America

United States:
  • Organic food is the fastest growing sector of the American food marketplace[66] .
  • Organic food sales have grown by 17 to 20 percent a year for the past few years[67] while sales of conventional food have grown at only about 2 to 3 percent a year.[68]
  • In 2003 organic products were available in nearly 20,000 natural food stores and 73% of conventional grocery stores.[69]
  • Organic products account for 2.6% of total food sales in the year 2005.[70]
  • Two thirds of organic milk and cream and half of organic cheese and yogurt are sold through conventional supermarkets.[71]
Canada:
  • Organic food sales surpassed $1 billion in 2006, accounting for 0.9% of food sales in Canada.[72]
  • Organic food sales by grocery stores were 28% higher in 2006 than in 2005. [72]
  • British Columbians account for 13% of the Canadian population, but purchased 26% of the organic food sold in Canada in 2006. [73]

[edit] Europe

In the European Union (EU25) 3.9% of the total utilized agricultural area is used for organic production. The countries with the highest proportion of organic land are Austria (11%) and Italy (8.4), followed by Czech Republic and Greece (both 7.2%). The lowest figures are shown for Malta (0.1%), Poland (0.6%) and Ireland (0.8%)[74]

Austria:
  • 11.6% of all farmers produced organically in 2007.[75] The government has created incentives to increase the figure to 20% by 2010.[76]
  • 4.9% of all food products sold in Austrian supermarkets (including discount stores) in 2006 were organic.[77] 8000 different organic products were available in the same year.[78]
Italy:
  • Since 2005 all school lunches must be organic by law.[79]
Poland:
  • In 2005 168,000 ha of land were under organic management. 7 percent of Polish consumers buy food that was produced according to the EU-Eco-regulation. The value of the organic market is estimated at 50 million Euros (2006).[80]
UK:
  • Organic food sales increased from just over £100 million in 1993/94 to £1.21 billion in 2004 (an 11% increase on 2003).[81]

[edit] Caribbean

Cuba:
  • After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990, agricultural inputs that had previously been purchased from Eastern bloc countries were no longer available in Cuba, and many Cuban farms converted to organic methods out of necessity.[82] Consequently, organic agriculture is a mainstream practice in Cuba, while it remains an alternative practice in most other countries. Although some products called organic in Cuba would not satisfy certification requirements in other countries (crops may be genetically modified, for example[83][84]), Cuba exports organic citrus and citrus juices to EU markets that meet EU organic standards. Cuba's forced conversion to organic methods may position the country to be a global supplier of organic products.[85]

[edit] Organics Olympiad

Organics Olympiad 2007 awarded gold, silver and bronze medals to countries based on twelve measures of organic leadership.[86]. The gold medal winners were:
  • Australia with 11.8 million organic hectares.
  • Mexico with 83,174 organic farms.
  • Romania with 15.9 million certified wild organic hectares.
  • China with 135 thousand tonnes of organic wild harvest produce.
  • Denmark with 1805 organic research publications recorded.
  • Germany with 69 members of IFOAM.
  • China with an increase of 1,998,705 organic hectares.
  • Liechtenstein with 27.9% of its agricultural land certified organic.
  • Mali with an 8488% annual increase in its organic hectares.
  • Latvia with an annual 3.01% increase in its organic share of agricultural land.
  • Liechtenstein with a 10.9% 4-yearly increment of the organic share of its total agriculture.
  • Switzerland with a per capita annual spend on organic produce of 103 Euros.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

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  39. ^ Monitoring of imported processed fruit and vegetable products by specific commodity, country and tests
  40. ^ Fresh fruit and vegetables
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  42. ^ Dairy products
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  45. ^ Lu, Chensheng, et al. (2006). "Organic Diets Significantly Lower Children’s Dietary Exposure to Organophosphorus Pesticides". Environmental Health Perspectives 114: 260–263.
  46. ^ "Raw Food" (APA). http://www.kosmix.com/Health/atkins_diet-Alternative_Treatments-Raw_Food/-od-definition_wiki_organic_food-s. Retrieved on 2008-03-06.
  47. ^ Tyrone Hayes, Kelly Haston, Mable Tsui, Anhthu Hoang, Cathryn Haeffele, and Aaron Vonk (2003). "Atrazine-Induced Hermaphroditism at 0.1 ppb in American Leopard Frogs". Environmental Health Perspectives 111.
  48. ^ Pesticide Information Profiles: Rotenone. June, 1996. Pesticide Information Project of Cooperative Extension Offices of Cornell University, Oregon State University, the University of Idaho, and the University of California at Davis and the Institute for Environmental Toxicology, Michigan State University. http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/rotenone.htm
  49. ^ Raeburn, Paul (2006). "Slow-Acting: After 25 years the EPA still won't ban a risky pesticide". Scientific American 295: 26.
  50. ^ Reregistration Eligibility Decision for Dichlorvos(DDVP) http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/reregistration/REDs/ddvp_red.pdf
  51. ^ 90 day dermal toxicity of DDVP in male rats, Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology http://www.springerlink.com/content/g067605h75k730t2/
  52. ^ The Food Standards Agency’s Current Stance
  53. ^ Sophie Goodchild (2009-07-). "Organic food 'no healthier' blow". London Evening Standard. http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/standard/article-23725592-details/article.do. Retrieved on 2009-07-29.
  54. ^ Bourn D, Prescott J. January 2002. A comparison of the nutritional value, sensory qualities, and food safety of organically and conventionally produced foods Critical Reviews in Food Science Nutrition. 42(1): 1-34.
  55. ^ Williams, C. M. February 2002. Nutritional quality of organic food: shades of grey or shades of green? Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 61(1): 19-24
  56. ^ Canadian Produce Marketing Association (CPMA). Organically Grown Produce: Does organic produce taste better? & Is organic produce more nutritious?
  57. ^ Sir John Krebs. June 5, 2003. Is organic food better for you? Speech given by the then-chair of the Food Standards Agency (UK), Sir John Krebs, to the Cheltenham Science Fair on June 5, 2005. Posted on the Food Standards Agency website: http://www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2003/jun/cheltenham
  58. ^ Reganold, John (2001). Sustainability of Organic, Conventional, and Integrated Apple Orchards.
  59. ^ Niggli, Urs et al. (2007).Improving Sustainability in Organic and Low Input Food Production Systems: Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress of the European Integrated Project Quality Low Input Food (QLIF).88.[1]Retrieved on 11 Nov 2007
  60. ^ UK Times (2007). "[2]". Nature.
  61. ^ a b Swedish National Food Administration --> Ekologisk mat Translated from: I studierna går det heller inte att påvisa några skillnader mellan ekologiskt och konventionellt odlade produkter när det gäller halter av naturliga gifter, till exempel mögelgifter, i spannmål eller solanin i potatis. Retrieved on June 11, 2009
  62. ^ Winter, CK and SF Davis, 2006 "Organic Foods" Journal of Food Science 71(9):R117-R124.
  63. ^ Pollan, Michael. The Omnivores Dilemma. Penguin Books. London, 2006.
  64. ^ "The Global Market for Organic Food & Drink". Organic Monitor. 2002. http://www.organicmonitor.com/700140.htm. Retrieved on 2006-06-20.
  65. ^ "The Global Market for Organic Food & Drink". Organic Monitor. 2006. http://www.organicmonitor.com/700240.htm. Retrieved on 2007-11-13.
  66. ^ http://www.barackobama.com/issues/pdf/EnvironmentFactSheet.pdf
  67. ^ Hansen, Nanette (2004). "Organic food sales see healthy growth". MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6638417/. Retrieved on 2006-06-20.
  68. ^ Warner, Melanie. "What Is Organic? Powerful Players Want a Say". New York Times: Nov. 1, 2005.
  69. ^ Catherine Greene and Carolyn Dimitri (2003). "Organic Agriculture: Gaining Ground". USDA Economic Research Service. http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aib777/. Retrieved on 2006-06-20.
  70. ^ Forschungsinstitut für biologischen Landbau (2006). "US-Biomarkt wächst wiederholt zweistellig". Ökolandbau.de. http://www.oekolandbau.de/haendler/marktinformationen/biomarkt-weltweit/usa-stand-102006/. Retrieved on 2007-10-12.
  71. ^ Dryer, Jerry (2003). "Market Trends: Organic Lessons". Prepared Foods. http://www.preparedfoods.com/CDA/Archives/d403da4af1788010VgnVCM100000f932a8c0____. Retrieved on 2006-06-20.
  72. ^ a b Macey, Anne (2007). "Retail Sales of Certified Organic Food Products in Canada in 2006" (pdf). Organic Agriculture Center of Canada. http://www.organicagcentre.ca/Docs/RetailSalesOrganic_Canada2006.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-04-09.
  73. ^ Macey, Anne (2007). "Retail Sales of Certified Organic Food Products in Canada in 2006. Organic food is not all organic. only food labeled with a 100% organic sticker are pesticide-free/" (pdf). Organic Agriculture Center of Canada. http://www.organicagcentre.ca/Docs/RetailSalesOrganic_Canada2006.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-04-09.
  74. ^ European Commission - Eurostat. "Eurostat press release 80/2007" (PDF). pp. 1. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007_MONTH_06/5-12062007-EN-BP.PDF. Retrieved on 2007-10-07.
  75. ^ Austrian Ministry of Agriculture. "FAQ". http://www.biolebensmittel.at/article/archive/12548. Retrieved on 2007-11-13.
  76. ^ Austrian chamber of agriculture. "Obmann-Wechsel bei Bio Austria". http://www.agrarnet.info/netautor/napro4/appl/na_professional/parse.php?id=20000%2C%2C900161%2C. Retrieved on 2007-04-26.
  77. ^ Agrarmarkt Austria. "RollAMA Bioanteile LEH 2003-2006". pp. 2. http://www.biolebensmittel.at/filemanager/download/20165/. Retrieved on 2007-10-07.
  78. ^ BIO AUSTRIA. "Wirtschaftlicher Durchbruch für Bio-Fachhandel im Jubiläumsjahr". http://www.bio-austria.at/presse/presseinfo_archiv/pressemeldung__4. Retrieved on 2007-11-13.
  79. ^ Organic Consumers Association. "Italian Law Calls for All Organic Foods in Nation's Schools". http://www.organicconsumers.org/organic/italy062804.cfm. Retrieved on 2007-11-13.
  80. ^ SixtyTwo International Consultants. "The organic food market in Poland: Ready for take-off". http://www.sixtytwo.biz/en/__organicfood1.htm. Retrieved on 2007-10-08.
  81. ^ Organic Centre Wales. "Organic statistics - the shape of organic food and farming". http://www.organic.aber.ac.uk/statistics/index.shtml. Retrieved on 2007-10-08.
  82. ^ Alison Auld. "Farming with Fidel". http://www.sustainabletimes.ca/articles/cubanfarms.htm. Retrieved on 2007-10-08.
  83. ^ Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology. "Cuban GMO Vision" (PDF). http://www.pugwash.org/reports/ees/cuba2004/03%20Pugwash/02_Rebecca.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-10-08.
  84. ^ Centro de Ingeniería Genética y Biotecnología de Cuba. "DirecciÓn de Investigaciones Agropecuarias". http://www.cigb.edu.cu/pages/iap.htm. Retrieved on 2007-10-08.
  85. ^ Office of Global Analysis, FAS, USDA. "Cuba’s Food & Agriculture Situation Report" (PDF). http://www.fas.usda.gov/itp/cuba/CubaSituation0308.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-09-04.
  86. ^ Paull, John "Organics Olympiad 2007 - Perspectives on the Global State of Organic Agriculture, Acres Australia, (2008) 16 (1): 36-38.

[edit] Further reading

[edit] External links

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_food"
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Botany

Botany

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Pinguicula grandiflora commonly known as a Butterwort
Example of a cross section of a stem [1]
For other uses, see Botany (disambiguation).

Botany, plant science(s), phytology, or plant biology is a branch of biology and is the scientific study of plant life and development. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study plants, algae, and fungi including: structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, chemical properties, and evolutionary relationships between the different groups. Botany began with tribal efforts to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making botany one of the oldest sciences. From this ancient interest in plants, the scope of botany has increased to include the study of over 550,000 species of living organisms.

Contents

[hide]

[edit] Scope and importance of botany

Hibiscus

As with other life forms in biology, plant life can be studied from different perspectives, from the molecular, genetic and biochemical level through organelles, cells, tissues, organs, individuals, plant populations, and communities of plants. At each of these levels a botanist might be concerned with the classification (taxonomy), structure (anatomy and morphology), or function (physiology) of plant life.

Historically all living things were grouped as animals or plants,[2] and botany covered all organisms not considered animals. Some organisms once included in the field of botany are no longer considered to belong to the plant kingdom – these include fungi (studied in mycology), lichens (lichenology), bacteria (bacteriology), viruses (virology) and single-celled algae, which are now grouped as part of the Protista. However, attention is still given to these groups by botanists, and fungi, lichens, bacteria and photosynthetic protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses.

The study of plants is vital because they are a fundamental part of life on Earth, which generates the oxygen, food, fibres, fuel and medicine that allow humans and other higher life forms to exist. Through photosynthesis, plants absorb carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that in large amounts can affect global climate. Additionally, they prevent soil erosion and are influential in the water cycle. A good understanding of plants is crucial to the future of human societies as it allows us to:

  • Produce food to feed an expanding population
  • Understand fundamental life processes
  • Produce medicine and materials to treat diseases and other ailments
  • Understand environmental changes more clearly

Paleobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record. It is believed that early in the Earth's history, the evolution of photosynthetic plants altered the global atmosphere of the earth, changing the ancient atmosphere by oxidation.

[edit] Human nutrition

Nearly all the food we eat comes (directly and indirectly) from plants like this American long grain rice

Virtually all foods eaten come from plants, either directly from staple foods and other fruit and vegetables, or indirectly through livestock or other animals, which rely on plants for their nutrition. Plants are the fundamental base of nearly all food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere, converting them into a form that can be consumed and utilized by animals; this is what ecologists call the first trophic level. Botanists also study how plants produce food we can eat and how to increase yields and therefore their work is important in mankind's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations, for example, through plant breeding. Botanists also study weeds, plants which are considered to be a nuisance in a particular location. Weeds are a considerable problem in agriculture, and botany provides some of the basic science used to understand how to minimize 'weed' impact in agriculture and native ecosystems. Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people.

[edit] Fundamental life processes

Plants are convenient organisms in which fundamental life processes (like cell division and protein synthesis) can be studied, without the ethical dilemmas of studying animals or humans. The genetic laws of inheritance were discovered in this way by Gregor Mendel, who was studying the way pea shape is inherited. What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany. Additionally, Barbara McClintock discovered 'jumping genes' by studying maize. These are a few examples that demonstrate how botanical research has an ongoing relevance to the understanding of fundamental biological processes.

[edit] Medicine and materials

Many medicinal and recreational drugs, like tetrahydrocannabinol, caffeine, and nicotine come directly from the plant kingdom. Others are simple derivatives of botanical natural products; for example, aspirin is based on the pain killer salicylic acid which originally came from the bark of willow trees. As well, the narcotic analgesics such as morphine are derived from the opium poppy.[3] There may be many novel cures for diseases provided by plants, waiting to be discovered. Popular stimulants like coffee, chocolate, tobacco, and tea also come from plants. Most alcoholic beverages come from fermenting plants such as barley (beer), rice (sake) and grapes (wine).

Plants also provide us with many natural materials, such as cotton, wood, paper, linen, vegetable oils, some types of rope, and rubber. The production of silk would not be possible without the cultivation of the mulberry plant. Sugarcane, rapeseed, soy and other plants with a highly-fermentable sugar or oil content have recently been put to use as sources of biofuels, which are important alternatives to fossil fuels (see biodiesel).

[edit] Environmental changes

Plants can also help us understand changes in on our environment in many ways.

In many different ways, plants can act a little like the 'miners' canary', an early warning system alerting us to important changes in our environment. In addition to these practical and scientific reasons, plants are extremely valuable as recreation for millions of people who enjoy gardening, horticultural and culinary uses of plants every day.

[edit] Etymology

From Greek βοτάνη = "pasture, grass, fodder", perhaps via the idea of a livestock keeper needing to know which plants are safe for livestock to eat.

[edit] History

The traditional tools of a botanist

[edit] Early botany

Ancient India

Early examples of plant taxonomy occur in the Rigveda, that divides plants into Vṛska (tree), Osadhi (herbs useful to humans) and Virudha (creepers), which are then further subdivided. The Atharvaveda divides plants into eight classes, Visakha (spreading branches), Manjari (leaves with long clusters), Sthambini (bushy plants), Prastanavati (which expands); Ekasṛnga (those with monopodial growth), Pratanavati (creeping plants), Amsumati (with many stalks), and Kandini (plants with knotty joints). The Taittiriya Samhita classifies the plant kingdom into vṛksa, vana and druma (trees), visakha (shrubs with spreading branches), sasa (herbs), amsumali (a spreading or deliquescent plant), vratati (climber), stambini (bushy plant), pratanavati (creeper), and alasala (those spreading on the ground).

Manusmriti – Law book of Hindus – proposed a classification of plants in eight major categories. Charaka Samhitā and Sushruta Samhita and the Vaisesikas also present an elaborate taxonomy.

Parashara, the author of Vṛksayurveda (the science of life of trees), classifies plants into Dvimatrka (Dicotyledons) and Ekamatrka (Monocotyledons). These are further classified into Samiganiya (Fabaceae), Puplikagalniya (Rutaceae), Svastikaganiya (Cruciferae), Tripuspaganiya (Cucurbitaceae), Mallikaganiya (Apocynaceae), and Kurcapuspaganiya (Asteraceae).[4]

Important medieval Indian works of plant physiology include the Prthviniraparyam of Udayana, Nyayavindutika of Dharmottara, Saddarsana-samuccaya of Gunaratna, and Upaskara of Sankaramisra.[4]

Ancient China

In ancient China, the recorded listing of different plants and herb concoctions for pharmaceutical purposes spans back to at least the Warring States (481 BC-221 BC). Many Chinese writers over the centuries contributed to the written knowledge of herbal pharmaceutics. There was the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) written work of the Huangdi Neijing and the famous pharmacologist Zhang Zhongjing of the 2nd century. There was also the 11th century scientists and statesmen Su Song and Shen Kuo, who compiled treatises on herbal medicine and included the use of mineralogy.

Greco-Roman world

Among the earliest of botanical works in Europe, written around 300 B.C., are two large treatises by Theophrastus: On the History of Plants (Historia Plantarum) and On the Causes of Plants. Together these books constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and on into the Middle Ages. Aristotle also wrote about plants.[5]

The Roman medical writer Pedanius Dioscorides (ca.40-90) provides important evidence on Greek and Roman knowledge of medicinal plants. Dioscorides is famous for writing a five volume book in his native Greek Περί ύλης ιατρικής (De Materia Medica - in the Latin translation) that is one of the most influential herbal books in history. In fact, it remained in use until about CE 1600.[6] Approximately 1300-1400 different plant species were known under Roman reign.[7]

[edit] Medieval botany

Main article: Muslim Agricultural Revolution

The Persian biologist Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī (828-896) is considered the founder of Arabic botany for his Book of Plants, in which he described at least 637 plants and discussed plant development from germination to death, describing the phases of plant growth and the production of flowers and fruit.[8]

Theophrastus’s Historia Plantarum served as a reference point in botany for many centuries, and was further developed around 1200 by Giovanni Bodeo da Stapelio, who added a commentarius and drawings: see Historia Plantarum —Selected pages of a 17th century edition of the 1200 version (in Italian).

In the early 13th century, the Andalusian-Arabian biologist Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati developed an early scientific method for botany, introducing empirical and experimental techniques in the testing, description and identification of numerous materia medica, and separating unverified reports from those supported by actual tests and observations.[9] His student Ibn al-Baitar (d. 1248) wrote a pharmaceutical encyclopedia describing 1,400 plants, foods, and drugs, 300 of which were his own original discoveries. A Latin translation of his work was useful to European biologists and pharmacists in the 18th and 19th centuries.[10]

[edit] Early modern botany

German physician Leonhart Fuchs (1501–1566) was one of the three founding fathers of botany, along with Otto Brunfels (1489- 1534) and Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) (also called Hieronymus Tragus).[11]

Valerius Cordus (1515–1554) authored one of the greatest pharmacopoeias and one of the most celebrated herbals in history, Dispensatorium (1546).[12] As early as the 16th century, the Italian Ulisse Aldrovandi was scientifically researching plants. In 1665, using an early microscope, Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, and a short time later in living plant tissue. The Germans Jacob Theodor Klein and Leonhart Fuchs, the Swiss Conrad von Gesner, and the British authors Nicholas Culpeper and Christopher Cole published herbals that gave information on the medicinal uses of plants.

During the 18th century systems of classification became deliberately artificial and served only for the purpose of identification. These classifications are comparable to diagnostic keys, where taxa are artificially grouped in pairs by few, easily recognisable characters. The sequence of the taxa in keys is often totally unrelated to their natural or phyletic groupings. In the 18th century an increasing number of new plants had arrived in Europe, from newly discovered countries and the European colonies worldwide, and a larger amount of plants became available for study.

In 1754 Carl von Linné (Carl Linnaeus) divided the plant Kingdom into 25 classes. One, the Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).[13]

The increased knowledge on anatomy, morphology and life cycles, lead to the realization that there were more natural affinities between plants, than the sexual system of Linnaeus indicated. Adanson (1763), Jussieu (1789), and Candolle (1819) all proposed various alternative natural systems that were widely followed. The ideas of natural selection as a mechanism for evolution required adaptations to the Candollean system, which started the studies on evolutionary relationships and phylogenetic classifications of plants.

[edit] Modern botany

A considerable amount of new knowledge today is being generated from studying model plants like Arabidopsis thaliana. This weedy species in the mustard family was one of the first plants to have its genome sequenced. The sequencing of the rice (Oryza sativa) genome, its relatively small genome, and a large international research community have made rice an important cereal/grass/monocot model.[14] Another grass species, Brachypodium distachyon is also emerging as an experimental model for understanding the genetic, cellular and molecular biology of temperate grasses. Other commercially-important staple foods like wheat, maize, barley, rye, pearl millet and soybean are also having their genomes sequenced. Some of these are challenging to sequence because they have more than two haploid (n) sets of chromosomes, a condition known as polyploidy, common in the plant kingdom. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (a single-celled, green alga) is another plant model organism that has been extensively studied and provided important insights into cell biology.

In 1998 the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny of flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants. As a result of this work, major questions such as which families represent the earliest branches in the genealogy of angiosperms are now understood. Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants.

[edit] Subdisciplines of Botany

[edit] Notable Botanists

Further information: List of botanists
  • Ibn al-Baitar (d. 1248), Andalusian-Arab scientist, botanist, pharmacist, physician, and author of one of the largest botanical encyclopedias.
  • Aimé Bonpland (1773-1858), French explorer and botanist, who accompanied Alexander von Humboldt during five years of travel in Latin America.
  • Luther Burbank (1849-1926), American botanist, horticulturist, and a pioneer in agricultural science.
  • Augustin Pyramus de Candolle He originated the idea of "Nature's war", which influenced Charles Darwin.
  • Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī (828-896), Persian botanist, historian, geographer, astronomer, mathematician, and founder of Arabic botany.
  • David Douglas (1799-1834), Scottish botanical explorer of North America and China, who imported many ornamental plants into Europe.
  • Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817-1911), English botanist and explorer. Second winner of Darwin Medal.
  • Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895), English biologist, known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. Third winner of Darwin Medal.
  • Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of Binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology.
  • Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884), Augustinian priest and scientist, and is often called the father of genetics for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants.
  • Carlos Muñoz Pizarro, Chilean botanist, known for his studies of the Chilean flora, and its conservation.
  • Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati (c. 1200), Andalusian-Arab botanist and agricultural scientist, and a pioneer in experimental botany.
  • Richard Spruce (1817-1893), English botanist and explorer who carried out a detailed study of the Amazon flora.
  • Agustín Stahl (1842-1917), conducted investigations and experiments in the fields of ethnology, and zoology in the Caribbean region.
  • George Ledyard Stebbins, Jr. Widely regarded as one of the leading evolutionary biologists of the 20th century, developed a comprehensive synthesis of plant evolution incorporating genetics.
  • Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Italian polymath; a scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, painter, sculptor,architect, botanist, musician and writer.

[edit] See also

Crantz's Classis cruciformium..., 1769

[edit] References

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Winterborne J, 2005. Hydroponics - Indoor Horticulture
  2. ^ Chapman, Jasmin; Jones, Alan M.; Walsh, Ed; McDonald, Averil; Elizabeth Murphy, Jan; O'Brien, Pat. Science Web. Nelson Thornes Ltd. pp. 56. ISBN 0-17-438746-6.
  3. ^ Mann, J. (1987). Secondary Metabolism, 2nd ed.. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 186–187. ISBN 0-19-855529-6.
  4. ^ a b Ancient Indian Botany and Taxonomy
  5. ^ Botany - History of botany
  6. ^ Timeline: Pedanius Dioscorides, c. 40–90 CE
  7. ^ Botany online: The History of a Science
  8. ^ Fahd, Toufic. "Botany and agriculture". pp. 815. , in Morelon, Régis & Roshdi Rashed (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 3, Routledge, ISBN 0415124107
  9. ^ Huff, Toby (2003). The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West. Cambridge University Press. p. 218. ISBN 0521529948.
  10. ^ Diane Boulanger (2002), "The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology", OISE Papers, in STSE Education, Vol. 3.
  11. ^ Early herbals – The German fathers of botany
  12. ^ Valerius Cordus | Science and Its Times: 1450-1699 Summary
  13. ^ Hoek, C. van den, Mann, D.G. and Jahns, H.M. 2005. Algae: An Introduction to Phycology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0 521 30419 9
  14. ^ Devos, Katrien M. (2000). "Genome Relationships: The Grass Model in Current Research" (free full text). The Plant Cell 12: 637. doi:10.2307/3870991. http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/content/full/12/5/637.

[edit] Bibliography

[edit] Popular science

[edit] Academic and scientific

  • Bowsher, C.G., Steer, M.W. & Tobin A.K. (2008) Plant Biochemistry. Garland Science, Taylor & Francis Group, New York & Abingdon ISBN 0-8153-4121-0
  • Buchanan, B.B., Gruissem, W & Jones, R.L. (2000) Biochemistry & molecular biology of plants. American Society of Plant Physiologists ISBN 0-943088-39-9
  • Crawford, R. M. M. (1989). Studies in plant survival. Blackwell. ISBN 0-632-01475-X
  • Crawley, M. J. (1997). Plant ecology. Blackwell Scientific. ISBN 0-632-03639-7
  • Ennos, R and Sheffield, E Plant life, Blackwell Science, ISBN 0-86542-737-2 Introduction to plant biodiversity
  • Everitt, J.H.; Lonard, R.L., Little, C.R. (2007). Weeds in South Texas and Northern Mexico. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 0-89672-614-2
  • Fitter, A & Hay, R Environmental physiology of plants 3rd edition Sept 2001 Harcourt Publishers, Academic Press ISBN 0-12-257766-3
  • Lambers, H., Chapin, F.S. III and Pons, T.L. 1998. Plant Physiological Ecology. Springer-Verlag, New York. ISBN 0-387-98326-0; 2nd compltely revised edition to appear in 2008.
  • Lawlor, D.W. (2000) Photosynthesis BIOS ISBN 1-85996-157-6
  • Matthews, R. E. F. Fundamentals of plant virology Academic Press,1992.
  • Mauseth, J.D.: Botany : an introduction to plant biology. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0-7637-2134-4, A first year undergraduate level textbook
  • Morton, A.G. (1981). History of Botanical Science.Academic Press, London. ISBN 0-12-508380-7 (hardback) ISBN 0-12-508382-3 (paperback)
  • Raven, P.H, Evert R.H and Eichhorn, S.E: Biology of Plants, Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-041-6, A first year undergraduate level textbook
  • Richards, P. W. (1996). The tropical rainforest. 2nd ed. C.U.P. (Pbk) ISBN 0-521-42194-2 £32.50
  • Ridge, I. (2002) Plants Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-925548-2
  • Salisbury, FB and Ross, CW: Plant physiology Wadsworth publishing company ISBN 0-534-15162-0
  • Stace, C. A. A new flora of the British Isles. 2nd ed. C.U.P.,1997. ISBN 0-521-58935-5
  • Strange, R. L. Introduction to plant pathology. Wiley-VCH, 2003. ISBN 0-470-84973-8
  • Taiz, L. & Zeiger, E. (1998). Plant physiology. 3rd ed. August 2002 Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-823-0
  • Walter, H. (1985). Vegetation of the earth. 3rd rev. ed. Springer.
  • Willis, K (2002) The evolution of plants Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-850065-3 £22-99

[edit] External links

Search Wikiversity At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Botany at:
Search Wikibooks Wikibooks has a book on the topic of
Biology portal

[edit] Flora and other plant catalogs or databases


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